Tuesday, July 19, 2011
Monday, May 23, 2011
Do Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence?

by Jason DulleJ.W. Wartick wrote a nice article questioning the truth of this maxim. He notes that on first blush the maxim seems obviously true, but upon further reflection it can be shown to be obviously false. Consider the claim that I am a giant pink salamander. This is an extraordinary claim, and yet the claim could be evidenced in rather ordinary ways. For example, one could come to my home and observe me. If I appear to be a giant pink salamander (one who talks and types), then the extraordinary claim is justified.
If one is not convinced by their eyes, then perhaps they could take a DNA sample and compare it to other salamanders. Such evidence is ordinary, but sufficient to verify the rather extraordinary claim that I am a pink salamander. It is false, then, that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. All that is required to justify an extraordinary claim is sufficient evidence.
Wartick notes some other problems with the maxim as well:
- It is ambiguous regarding what qualifies a claim as “extraordinary.” Does it mean improbable? If so, then many events are extraordinary (yesterday’s lottery numbers, a hole-in-one, etc.)The atheist should not be allowed to get away with labeling a claim as “extraordinary” (and thus raising the bar for its justification) unless he has a clearly defined criteria for what qualifies as an extraordinary claim and can demonstrate that the claim in question meets that criteria.
- It is ambiguous regarding what constitutes “extraordinary evidence.” Is it the number of evidences, or the persuasive power of the evidence? While it is clear that the epistemic bar has been raised, it is not clear as to how high it has been raised, or how it can be cleared. The ambiguity allows the atheist to dismiss any kind/amount of evidence the Christian theist presents as “not good enough.” Only if “extraordinary evidence” is quantified can it be determined if the epistemic bar is appropriate, or if it has been met.
Wartick speculates that what people mean by “extraordinary claims” is a claim regarding things that “can’t be observed in the usual fashion” or things that have “great existential import” to our lives. In regards to things that can’t be observed in the usual fashion, Wartick argues that we do not need extraordinary evidence to justify such claims, but a different kind of evidence (logical, philosophical) than we would employ for things we observe in a usual fashion.
In regards to things that have great existential import to us, Wartick takes a cue from William Lane Craig to argue that such claims should cause us to be more open to every piece of evidence in its favor than we normally would be for things that have little existential import. Citing Craig, he provides the following example: “[S]uppose you are diagnosed with a fatal disease and there was ‘some experimental evidence that a vaccine… might cure you, wouldn’t you be desperate to [try the medicine and] find out if that might save your life… rather than saying, ‘Well, this is such a life-changing situation that I’m going to be as skeptical as I can, and only take this medicine as a last resort when it’s been demonstrated absolutely that’ it will cure the disease.”
Let me finish with a possible tactical approach to responding to this maxim. When someone says, “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence,” respond by saying, “That is quite an extraordinary claim you just made. Do you have extraordinary evidence that justifies it?” Surely your opponent will object to your classification of the maxim as an extraordinary claim, but to show why it is not an extraordinary claim he will have to clearly define the criteria for what constitutes an extraordinary claim.
At that point you can debate the criteria and/or whether or not those criteria truly apply to the issue at hand (God’s existence, resurrection of Jesus, etc.). You could also respond by asking, “Why think extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence?” This will require him to justify the veracity of the maxim, and in the process give you a chance to expose its flaws. Perhaps you could even follow up by asking, “Why think extraordinary claims require anything more than sufficient evidence?”
I recommend that you read the article for yourself. It’s a short read.
Saturday, April 9, 2011
Scientists Don’t Have a Clue How Life Began
Those aren’t my words (although I concur with them). Those are the words of John Horgan, a science journalist and former editor of Scientific American. Horgan recently published an article in Scientific American discussing the dismal state of origin-of-life research. He describes the research as being at an “impasse,” and resorting to “far out…speculation” as exemplified by the theory of panspermia (life originated in outer space and was brought to earth).
Just one week prior to the publication of Horgan’s article, science writer Dennis Overbye published an article in the New York Times on the same subject. He reported on an origin-of-life conference at Arizona State University in which two dozen top-ranking scientists from a variety of disciplines converged to discuss the problem. While Overbye touted the RNA World hypothesis, he noted that “one lesson of the meeting was how finicky are the chemical reactions needed for carrying out these simple-sounding functions,” and “even if RNA did appear naturally, the odds that it would happen in the right sequence to drive Darwinian evolution seem small.”
It’s not often that the public is made aware of the fact that scientists have no adequate naturalistic explanation for the origin of life, so it’s refreshing to see this being discussed by ideological opponents in venues as important as the New York Times.
Monday, March 14, 2011
Big Bang Cosmology and Atheism Go Together Like Peas in a Blender

by Jason Dulle
For millennia philosophers maintained that the universe is eternal. The philosophical payoff of this view was that it avoided the God question. If the universe has always been, it did not need a creator. The emergence of the Big Bang theory in the early part of the 20th century, however, changed all of that. The Big Bang model successfully predicted that the universe–including all spatio-temporal-material reality–had an absolute origin at a point in the finite past, from which it expanded, and continues to expand today.
The theistic implications of this model were recognized instantly. If the universe began to exist, it seemed to require a supernatural cause (one outside the confines of the natural world). That’s why it was met with fierce opposition, and why it took several decades and many lines of empirical confirmation to become the reigning paradigm it is today. Even now, cosmogenists continue to put forth alternative models in hopes of averting the beginning of the universe, many of which are little more than exercises in metaphysical speculation, incapable of both verification and falsification.
While not friendly to an atheistic worldview, many atheists eventually made their peace with the empirical evidence, and accepted the theory. But the theistic implications of a temporally finite universe have not gone away. Anything that begins to exist requires a cause. If the universe began to exist, what caused it to exist? It could not be a natural law, because natural laws originated with the universe. It could not be self-caused, because this is incoherent. Something cannot bring itself into existence, for that would entail its existence prior to its existence.
The atheist has two options. He can either admit to the existence of an external cause of the universe, or affirm that the universe is uncaused. For most atheists the first option is out of the question. An external cause of the universe looks too much like God: immaterial, eternal, non-spatial, intelligent, and personal. That leaves them the second option. But this won’t do either. The causal principle is one of the most basic intuitions we have. Things don’t just pop into existence uncaused from nothing, so why think the universe did? If everything that begins to exist has a sufficient cause, on what grounds is the origin of the universe excepted? If one excepts it on the basis that it is impossible to have a cause prior to the first event, they are guilty of begging the question in favor of atheism, for they are assuming that physical reality is the only reality, and thus the only possible cause of the Big Bang must be a physical cause. But it is entirely plausible that the external cause of the Big Bang was an eternal, non-physical reality. The only way to demonstrate that the universe cannot have a cause, then, is to demonstrate that the existence of an eternal, non-physical reality like God is impossible. But the very beginning of the universe is an argument for such a being’s existence!
Some atheists, recognizing the problem the principle of causal sufficiency makes for the atheistic worldview, cling to an eternal universe despite the scientific and philosophic evidence to the contrary. They recognize that it is nonsense to think something can come from nothing, uncaused. Something can only come from something. From nothing, nothing comes. If there was ever a time when nothing existed (as the Big Bang model predicts), then of necessity there would be nothing still, because nothing has no potential to become something. And yet there is something, so there could not have been a time when nothing existed. As a matter of historical fact, there can’t ever be a time when there was nothing. Something must exist eternally. If something must exist eternally, and the universe is not that something, then something resembling the God of theism must exist. Rather than admit the obvious-that this is evidence for the existence of God-these atheists reject the scientific and philosophical evidence for a finite universe, and assert that the universe must exist eternally.
What’s important to see, here, is that this sort of atheist is not being intellectually honest with the evidence. He has an a priori philosophical and volitional commitment to atheism, and that commitment biases him to such an extent that he will not accept the destination to which the rational evidence leads. Only theism is consistent with the evidence, and consistent with reason. While I commend atheists who reject the notion that the universe could come into being from nothing totally uncaused as an irrational leap of faith, I admonish them to go one step further, and recognize that the principle that something only comes from something, combined with the scientific an philosophical evidence for the finitude of the universe, supports theism, not atheism. To be consistent and honest with the data, they should accept the finitude of the universe, and admit that its existence requires a personal and supernatural cause.
Saturday, October 2, 2010
Why is there so much evil in the world?
by Jason DulleIn days gone by many atheists thought the existence of evil in the world disproved theism. Largely due to the work of philosopher Alvin Plantinga, however, most professional philosophers now concede that the presence of evil in the world does not disprove the existence of God (unfortunately, lay atheists failed to get the memo). As atheist and J.L. Mackie came to admit, “Since this defense is formally [i.e., logically] possible, and its principle involves no real abandonment of our ordinary view of the opposition between good and evil, we can concede that the problem of evil does not, after all, show that the central doctrines of theism are logically inconsistent with one another.”
No longer able to use the mere existence of evil as evidence against God’s existence, atheists began to argue that the amount of evil in the world makes the existence of God unlikely. “Why,” they ask, “is there so much evil in the world?” James Corman and Keith Lehrer are representative of this modified argument:
If you were all-good, all-knowing, and all-powerful, and you were going to create a universe in which there were sentient beings — beings who are happy and sad; enjoy pleasure; feel pain; express love, anger, pity, hatred — what kind of world would you create? Being all-powerful, you would have the ability to create any world that it is logically possible for you to create, and being all-knowing you would know how to create any of these logically possible worlds. Which one would you choose? Obviously you would choose the best of all the possible worlds because you would be all-good and would want to do what is best in everything you do. You would, then, create the best of all the possible worlds, that is, that world containing the least amount of evil possible. And because one of the most obvious kinds of evil is suffering, hardship, and pain, you would create a world in which the sentient beings suffered the least. Try to imagine what such a world would be like. Would it be like the one which actually does exist, this world we live in? Would you create a world such as this one if you had the power and knowhow to create any logically possible world? If your answer is “no,” as it seems it must be, then you should begin to understand why the evil of suffering and pain in this world is such a problem for anyone who thinks God created this world. This does not seem to be the kind of world God would create, and certainly not the kind of world he would sustain. Given this world, then, it seems we should conclude that it is improbable that it was created or sustained by anything we would call God. Thus, given this particular world, it seems we should conclude that it is improbable that God – who if he exists, created this world – exists. Consequently, the belief that God does not exist, rather than the belief that he exists, would seem to be justified by the evidence we find in this world.[1]
The claim that God’s existence is improbable given the amount of evil in the world is a much more modest and tenable argument, but it too is problematic. In his debate with Clancy Martin, J.P. Moreland made the point that asking why there is so much evil in the world is an iterative question; i.e. it can be asked over and over again, without any answer being sufficient.[2] If there was only half the amount of evil in the world, the question could still be asked, “Why is there so much evil in the world?” Indeed, if the amount of evil was cut in half again, the question could still be asked ad infinitum. It quickly becomes apparent that the real issue is not the amount of evil, but the presence of evil in the world altogether. Ultimately, then, the argument against God based on the amount of evil in the world is just a restatement of the general problem of evil.
To make this point clear to an interlocutor you might ask, “Would you cease complaining about evil if the amount of evil was reduced in half? What about if it was reduced by 72%? How much evil in the world would you say is acceptable?”
There is an even deeper problem that often goes unnoticed: How does one even go about quantifying evil? As Plantinga notes in God, Freedom, and Evil, evil is not the kind of thing that can be quantified. It wouldn’t make any sense to say “that act contained 35 turps of evil.” This is not to say it’s impossible for there to be a world in which fewer evil acts/events occurred. There could be, but that point is irrelevant. God could have created a world containing no evil by creating a world without any free creatures at all. The relevant question, however, is whether He could have created a world containing free creatures that not only contains less evil, but the same amount of proportional good. As Plantinga notes, it’s not at all obvious that this was possible. It could be that our world contains the most amount of good and the least amount of evil possible for free creatures. This is a logically coherent explanation to why this world contains the amount of evil it does. Admittedly, such a proposition cannot be proven, but neither can it be disproven. As William Lane Craig notes, our epistemic finitude prohibits us from being able to properly evaluate such grand cost-benefit calculations. God, however, is not limited in this way. So long as it is logically possible that the amount of evil in the world is necessary to obtain a maximal amount of goodness, the argument against God’s existence based on the amount of evil in the world fails.
[1]James W. Cornman, Keith Lehrer, and George S. Pappas, Philosophical Problems and Arguments: An Introduction, 3d edition, 1982; available from http://www.ditext.com/cornman/corn5.html; Internet; accessed 06 October 2009.
[2]J.P. Moreland, debating philosopher Clancy Martin on the question, “Does the Christian God Exist?” December 1, 2005 at St. Joseph, MO.
Friday, October 1, 2010
The Origin of Life is not a Lottery
In a previous post I argued that chance cannot account for the origin of the first living cell because the odds are too low to have any reasonable chance of being met. The odds of a single, functional protein forming by chance is 1 in 10164. That’s 1 chance in 100 trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion. But the simplest life form would need at least 250 different proteins, lowering the odds to 1 in 1041,000!
While the numbers appear staggering, many people will immediately raise the “lottery objection”: Just as the odds of winning the lottery are low, and yet people win the lottery all the time, so too the odds of forming life by chance may be low, but that doesn’t mean it is impossible. While I understand the analogy, are the lottery and the OOL truly analogous? No, not by a long shot.
The odds of life forming from non-living substances by chance cannot be legitimately compared to the odds of winning the lottery for the following reasons: (1) the odds are exponentially lower for forming life by chance; (2) the probabilistic resources required to overcome the odds of winning the lottery are vastly different than the probabilistic resources required to overcome the odds of life forming by chance.
What are “probabilistic resources?” This is a fancy term that refers to the number of opportunities available to meet any given odds. Perhaps the following illustration would help elucidate the relationship of odds to probabilistic resources:
The odds of someone guessing the correct combination of a 5-dialed lock (each dial containing 10 digits) are 1 in 100,000. What are the chances that someone can open the lock without knowledge of the combination? It depends on the number of attempts they are allowed (the probabilistic resources). If they are only allowed one try, the odds are vastly against them being able to open the lock. If they are allowed 100,000 tries, however, it is virtually certain that they will be able to open the lock.
Now, let’s talk life and lottery for a moment. The odds of someone winning the lottery are actually quite high, but only because the probabilistic resources are high. In a lottery, the length of time it takes someone to win depends on the number of numbers you have to match (the odds get exponentially lower for each number added), the number of players, and the frequency of the drawings. Let’s take a concrete example. The odds of winning the Mega Millions lottery is about 1 in 176,000,000 (1:108). If 30,000,000 people play each week, and each person buys a single ticket representing a unique combination of numbers, the odds of someone winning the lottery in the next drawing are 1 in 6. Because the probabilistic resources are so high for lotteries, the odds that someone will win can be easily met (someone wins the Mega Millions jackpot once every 4 weeks on average).
The same is not true of the origin of life, however. There is an immense gap between the odds of forming life from non-life and the probabilistic resources available to meet those odds. As noted previously, the chance of forming the most basic life form is a staggering 1 in 1041,000. Could those odds be met given enough time? No, because there are not enough probabilistic resources available in the entire known universe to give it even a reasonable shot of happening. How do I know this? If we take the number of seconds since the Big Bang (1016), and add to that the number of elementary particles in the universe (1080), and add to that the number of particle interactions per second (1043), we can figure out the total number of events in the whole history of the universe. It turns out to be a whopping 10139 events. Written out, that’s 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
That’s a huge number, but still a far cry from 1041,000! Written out, 1041,000 is 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
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000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. No, my computer keys did not get stuck—that’s the actual number!
This means the total number of events throughout the whole history of the universe is less than 1 out of a trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion 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trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion 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trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion 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trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion of the total number of events needed to give the origin of life even a 50% chance of success!
I think it should be clear that the origin of life is nothing like the lottery. Not only are the odds immensely higher for winning the lottery, but the probabilistic resources are so abundant that it makes it certain that someone will win (and they do, over and over again). The odds for creating life from non-life by chance are magnitudes of order lower than winning the lottery, and the probabilistic resources are magnitudes upon magnitudes fewer than the probabilistic resources available for the lottery. This is why mathematicians trained in probability theory can confidently conclude that life could not have arisen by chance.
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